UK Negotiating on EU Renewable Targets
Following suggestions that planning constraints and high costs will prevent the UK from attaining the renewable energy targets set by the European Commission (15% by 2020), the British Government was said to be attempting to renegotiate its position to obtain a lower target or extend the compliance date.
At present, the UK derives under 2% of its energy from renewable sources, primarily wind power, equivalent to around 5% of its electricity. The EU target would mean taking the renewable contribution to electricity generation to between 35% and 40%.
The costs of offshore wind power are double those of onshore wind farms, which in turn are more expensive than conventional power generation. In addition, foreseeable shortages in conventional power generation will result in an unacceptable political cost by forcing millions of people into fuel poverty.
The Fuel Poverty Advisory Group has already reported that government plans to eradicate existing fuel poverty in vulnerable households by 2010 are in disarray due to the withdrawal of State funding and recent energy price rises.
Playing with Greenhouse Gas Numbers
According to government figures announced on 1st February 2008, UK greenhouse gas emissions in 2006 were 0.5% down on the previous year and more than 16% below 1990 levels. However, international aviation emissions rose in 2006, and total output of CO2 was barely changed at 0.1% below the 2005 total.
Excluding international aviation and shipping, which do not have to be accounted for under the Kyoto Protocol, emissions in 2006 of all six major greenhouse gases were equivalent to 652.3 million tonnes of carbon dioxide, of which CO2 accounted for 554.5 million tonnes.
Government data showed that in 2006 international flights in and out of Britain produced 35.6 million tonnes of CO2 emissions, based on UK fuel consumption, or 6.4% of total CO2, while international shipping produced 1.2%. British international aviation emissions rose 1.5% in 2006 while domestic aviation fell 2.8%.
Under the international Kyoto Protocol, Britain has to cut its greenhouse gases to 12.5% below 1990 levels by 2012.
London Low Emission Zone Initiated
London has the worst road traffic particulate air pollution in the UK and is rated among the poorest air quality cities in Europe. On 4th February 2008, a “low emission zone” scheme was launched to cut traffic pollution and improve air quality. The scheme will use a network of cameras to monitor the particulate and soot exhaust emissions of large diesel lorries, later expanding coverage to smaller commercial vehicles, and impose heavy fines on those exceeding EU exhaust limits.
Initially it will only affect diesel vehicles over 12 tonnes, and will be extended to cover lorries over 3.5 tonnes, coaches and buses in July 2008; and to larger vans and minibuses in October 2010. The scheme will operate all day every day, and cover an area of 610 sq miles.
All lorries made after October 2001 automatically comply with the Euro 3 standards of particulate emissions of 0.05 grammes per kilometre, the level adopted by the scheme. The scheme operator, Transport for London, said it had identified 120,000 lorries of over 12 tonnes inside the zone during six months of monitoring last year, and estimates that 10% do not meet EU standards. Lorries that do not comply and have not been retrofitted with exhaust scrubbers to bring them up to standard will be charged £200 a day to be in the zone, with a penalty of £1,000 if they fail to pay.
The scheme cost £49 million to set up, but is expected to raise £2 to £3 million a year in daily charges and a further £1 million in penalty fees. The objective is to improve the respiratory health of Londoners rather than to make money.
Low emission zones are already planned or in operation in 70 towns and cities in eight European countries including Norway, the Netherlands and Germany.
Manual Handling Training Does Not Work
A research paper by Kari-Pekka Martimo, Jos Verbeek, et al, published in the British Medical Journal, BMJ, doi:10.1136/bmj.39463.418380.BE, describes a study into the effect of providing workers with training and lifting equipment in order to prevent back pain in manual handling operations involving heavy lifting. The workers scrutinised in the study were lifting and moving hospital patients; participating in baggage handling; and postal workers.
The researchers reviewed randomised controlled trials and cohort studies with a concurrent control group; and interventions aimed to modify techniques for lifting and handling heavy objects or patients. They included measurements for back pain, and consequent disability or sick leave as the main outcome. They assessed the eligibility of the studies and their methodological quality. The data sets were summarised and compared analytically. The findings were that six of the randomised trials and five cohort studies met acceptable eligibility criteria; two randomised trials and all cohort studies were labelled as high quality.
However, the authors conclude from the eligible work that there is no evidence to support the use of advice or training in working techniques with or without lifting equipment for preventing back pain or consequent disability. These findings challenge the current widespread practice of advising workers on correct lifting techniques.
Government Targets Water Use
Despite extensive flooding over the past two years, DEFRA announced on 8th February 2008 that economies in water consumption must take place, due to the increasing population and a reduction in water replenishment arising from the effects of climatic change. South-east England is already classed as water-stressed with unsustainable supplies, and is expected to become more so as numbers grow and rainfall declines.
Heavy industrial and domestic use and waste of water is straining supply and consuming energy in its purification. Britons use an average of 150 litres of water a day or 52 tonnes a year for drinking, cooking, eating and washing. Government strategy is to reduce that figure by 20% to 120 litres a day by 2030.
The water-saving measures are likely to include universal household water meters, a “review of water charges to encourage water conservation”, controlling leakages from the distribution network, and increasing appliance efficiency. The Government will consult industry on removing phosphates from laundry detergents, which account for 10% of environmentally harmful water pollution.
The current UK water usage figure is the same as in Finland, France and Luxembourg, but well below Spanish consumption of 265 litres a day. Average consumption in Belgium is 108 litres a day.
HSE Alert to COMAH Operators
On 8th February 2008, the HSE issued a Safety Alert to operators of COMAH oil/fuel storage sites and others storing hazardous substances in large tanks. The alert followed a dangerous incident which took place at a facility storing urea ammonium nitrate (UAN) fertiliser in solution. Following a tanker loading operation, a UAN transfer pump was inadvertently left running. The transfer pump continued to run for several hours until an explosion occurred. Fragments were projected over an extended distance and widespread damage resulted. One fragment punctured a nearby gas oil tank, resulting in a substantial loss of product.
The HSE state that UAN in solution is normally considered low hazard; but when the water in UAN evaporates the residue may include concentrated ammonium nitrate and urea, which may become unstable and/or explosive. There have been previous incidents where UAN pumps left operating for extended periods or left running against a blocked discharge have been known to detonate.
Operators are advised to ensure that UAN transfer pumps are fitted with suitable protection, e.g. a cut-out that operates in the event of high temperature and/or no or low liquid flow. The HSE suggest the instigation of systems of work requiring checks by site staff to ensure that transfer pumps are switched off on completion of tanker loading or other transfer operations.
Public Health and Climate Change
On 12th February 2008, the Department of Health and the Health Protection Agency published a report entitled Health Effects of Climate Change in the UK 2008. It represents official Government advice to hospitals, care homes and organisations on dealing with the consequences of rising temperatures, increased flood risk, strong winds and other major weather events.
The NHS has been warned that within five years the UK is likely to experience regular outbreaks of malaria and tick-born viruses, such as Lyme disease; fatal heatwaves; and contaminated drinking water caused by flooding, bacteria and algal blooms. In south-east England there is a high risk (1 in 40) of a severe heatwave by 2012, perhaps leading to as many as 3,000 immediate deaths, followed by a further 6,350 fatalities from such conditions as heart failure, asthma and skin cancer. All relevant institutions have been told they must prepare in advance a comprehensive contingency plan on how to deal with disasters resulting from climatic deterioration.
Malaria used to be endemic in the UK until the 18th century and may well return if environmental conditions become more conducive, or be extensively reintroduced by infected travellers. Hospital admissions due to respiratory distress caused by air pollution are also likely to rise significantly, by at least 1,500 a year.
UK Not Prepared against Floods
A UK Government review into the consequences of the 2007 floods is being led by Sir Michael Pitt, who told a meeting of the Local Government Association held in mid-February 2008 that preparations and warnings for surface water flooding were not in place and more resources must be made available to prevent a similar disaster from recurring. Surface water flooding is not covered in similar fashion to coastal and river flooding, and potential hotspots have not been mapped. Last year’s floods highlighted the vulnerability of electrical substations and water treatment works, motorways and rail lines. Utility companies should therefore be involved in risk planning.
Metal Producers Confused by REACH
The EU REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals) Regulation is designed to protect people and the environment from potentially hazardous materials found in manufactured goods, including clothing and vehicles. The law covers all metals from high volume copper and aluminium to minor metals such as indium, used to make liquid crystal displays for screens, and selenium, used in glass-making, construction and agriculture. It does not cover gold.
The German company Norddeutsche Affinerie is the largest European copper smelter and has complained that the terms of REACH are unclear and industry does not understand which metals and in which form, in particular recycled metals or end of waste material, are covered under the new regulation.
Other large metal producers have claimed that it will not be economically viable to supply up to 7% of their product portfolio, resulting in lost sales and the additional cost of disposal of such materials as arsenic, which would have to be treated as hazardous waste.
Although this would present a business opportunity for smaller players, who would focus on the minor metals larger producers were getting rid of, it might create a monopoly situation for some metals as high sales volume is necessary to comply with the legislation.
Metals producers must pre-register substances falling under REACH by June 2008, and by 2010 technical dossiers describing their environmental impact must be ready for submission to the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA). The rules apply to all companies handling metals and other substances such as chemicals, including importers, manufacturers and downstream users. If a party fails to register, it will have to stop marketing and producing the metal by December 2008.
Oil Exploration in Doubt
Jan-Peter Onstwedder, the former senior risk manager at BP, is reported to have said in an interview with Reuters that known oil, gas and coal reserves may contain 25% more carbon than mankind can emit and still avoid dangerous climate change. This raises questions on the value of new oil exploration and exploiting unconventional reserves such as tar sands.
Onstwedder calculated the potential carbon emissions from proven oil, gas and coal reserves at around 700 billion tonnes, compared with around 500 billion tonnes which represents the consensus safe limit that can be emitted this century in order to control global temperature increases within less dangerous bounds. The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported last year that keeping long-term warming to 2.0C to 2.4C above pre-industrial levels means that mankind has to halve global carbon emissions by 2050. The European Union has warned that 2C warming is a threshold for dangerous climate change.
The figures are in line with independent academic calculations that mankind should emit no more than 400 billion tonnes of carbon this century to have at least a 50:50 chance of staying within 2C.
After applying US Government conversion factors, the BP annual energy review shows "locked in" carbon emissions of about 152 billion tonnes in proven oil reserves, 96 billion tonnes in natural gas fields and 455 billion tonnes in coal reserves, equivalent to 703 billion tonnes in total.
The only justifiable strategy for exploring for new reserves would be if carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology actually works on an industrial scale. The first such large-scale project, the FutureGen plant, was abandoned by the US Energy Department at the end of January 2008 because of cost overruns.
The release of Onstwedder’s comments coincided with a major oil industry gathering at the Cambridge Energy Research Associates' annual conference in Houston, Texas.
DEFRA Packaging Waste Targets
DEFRA announced in a news release its intention to increase packaging waste recovery and recycling targets for Great Britain from 2008 onwards. The new overall recovery targets of 72% in 2008, 73% in 2009 and 74% in 2010 are intended to enable the UK to meet its 2008 EU Directive target of recycling at least 60% of packaging waste.
In 2008 alone the new targets will avoid the atmospheric emission of over eight million tonnes of CO2. Increases in the following two years will realise a further saving of 258,097 tonnes of CO,2 in 2009 and an additional 285,436 tonnes in 2010.
Increases in recycling targets for aluminium and glass for 2008 are slightly lower than anticipated, but still represent an increase over 2007 targets, and will rise steadily year-on-year. Further measures to increase aluminium recycling are expected in the near future.
Health and Safety Offences Bill
A private member's Bill introduced in the House of Commons by Keith Hill, called the Health and Safety (Offences) Bill 2007-08, received an unopposed second reading on 1st February 2008, passed the committee stage without amendment on 26th March, and is scheduled to progress to the report stage on 13th June.
Among other changes, the Bill would raise the level of penalties for health and safety offences:
- The maximum fine that may be imposed in magistrates’ courts for specific breaches of health and safety regulations (at present £5,000) would be raised to £20,000.
- Imprisonment would be made an option for most health and safety offences in both the lower and higher courts.
- Two offences that can at present be tried only in the lower courts would be allowed to be tried in both the lower and higher courts.
Previous attempts to increase penalties by this route have failed.
Updated Guidance on Pandemic Influenza
The HSE has published updated workplace guidance for employers and employees to use if the Chief Medical Officer declares an outbreak of pandemic ‘flu within the United Kingdom.
Pandemic influenza is not the same thing as bird ‘flu or H5N1, currently classed separately as a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus. Pandemic ‘flu is a public health matter with health and safety requirements under the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002 as amended to protect workers who come into contact with infectious micro-organisms, such as the influenza virus, either as a direct consequence of their work, e.g. those who carry out research work on the virus, or due to exposure in the course of their work, e.g. healthcare workers caring for infectious patients. COSHH does not cover employees who are exposed to a disease which is in general circulation and so may enter the workplace as well.
There may be indirect health and safety consequences of such a pandemic which do impinge on health and safety legislation (the Health and Safety at Work, etc. Act 1974 and the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 as amended), e.g. the redeployment of workers to unfamiliar tasks or to lone or remote working as a consequence of a depleted staff resource due to sickness absence. Where there are indirect health and safety effects, it is important to use the principles of risk assessment as a basis for ensuring the appropriate controls are put in place.
The guidance is available at:
http://www.hse.gov.uk/biosafety/diseases/pandflu.htm
HSE Shuts Down North Sea Platform
Following a series of incidents in August 2007, including a gas leak from the flare system, an oil spill and a safety systems failure that forced an evacuation, the HSE carried out a safety inspection of the Janice Alpha floating oil platform in the North Sea. The platform is located on the Dumbarton field about 240 kilometres south-east of Aberdeen.
The HSE served a prohibition notice for the installation on 15th November 2007. The field is operated by the Danish company, Maersk Oil, which took over from the previous operator, Kerr McGee, in July 2005. The HSE notice referred to more than 40 areas on Janice where maintenance was outstanding, and noted that lifting operations were poorly controlled.
The HSE told Maersk Oil that the Janice platform should remain shut down until a catalogue of serious safety failures has been fixed. The company announced that it had set up an internal taskforce to deal with problems at Janice, but has no current plans for starting up production again.
Partial Ban on Dichloromethane Use
The European Commission (EC) announced on 14th February 2008 that the sale and use of paint removers containing dichloromethane (DCM) would be restricted. DCM or methylene chloride, CH2Cl2 , is a volatile chlorohydrocarbon solvent presenting an acute inhalation hazard. It is metabolised in the body to carbon monoxide, giving rise to neurotoxic poisoning. Prolonged skin contact can result in dissolving of fatty tissues, producing skin irritation or chemical burns. The substance is also a suspected carcinogen and teratogen. It is widely used as a paint stripper and a degreaser, and was once used in the food industry to decaffeinate coffee and to prepare extracts of hops and other flavourings. Other uses include plastic welding, as an aerosol spray propellant, as a blowing agent for polyurethane foams, and as a fumigant pesticide for stored strawberries and grains.
A significant number of accidents and deaths in the European Union in recent years have been linked to its use. It is available in paint strippers sold by Do-It-Yourself stores and is used in industry.
The EC stated that according to expert opinion, the substance may be used safely by professionals if adequate precautions are taken, and member states may permit its purchase and use by licensed professionals who have received appropriate training.
Member states and the European Parliament are expected to adopt the proposal formally by the end of this year.
Air Pollution and PAHs
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are organic compounds abundant in crude oil and found at high levels in polluted city air from vehicle exhausts and the emissions from coal-burning plant. Some of the larger PAH molecules are known carcinogens, but the smaller types had been thought relatively harmless. People who live in cities breathe in an aerosol of particle toxin PAHs.
Research in the USA by John Incardona, a developmental biologist with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, involved a study of zebra fish embryos (a small tropical fish with a heart similar in structure to a human). He found that smaller PAHs had dramatic effects on the developing heart, causing swelling and irregular heartbeats or arrhythmias. At the annual conference of the American Association for Advancement of Science held in Boston in mid-February 2008, he suggested that the high similarities between the human and zebra fish heart made it "most likely" the adult human heart would be similarly affected.
The stimulus for the research came in the aftermath of the “Exxon Valdez” oil spill disaster of 1989, when salmon and herring embryos caught up in the oil slick were found to have developed heart defects.
Previous studies have shown that air pollution can raise the risk of heart attacks and strokes, a statistical correlation that until now has been blamed mostly on fine sooty particles (PM10s) in exhaust fumes. Dr Incardona argues his analysis indicates that small PAH airborne contaminants are likely to be toxic to the human heart and should be considered prime suspects in the cardiovascular impacts of urban air.
Critics have commented that there is only a low incidence of spontaneous, unexplained heart disease and arrhythmia in urban adults, and extrapolating from zebra fish development to humans is a long step. However, the findings suggest that small PAHs have an important effect on developmental chemical interactions in the heart.
Survey Reveals Ignorance of Asbestos Risk
A survey carried out by the British Lung Foundation ahead of Action Mesothelioma Day on 27th February 2008 questioned a sample of 399 tradespeople, including builders, plumbers, carpenters, electricians and gas fitters, who are most at risk of exposure, on their awareness of asbestos. The survey found that:
- Less than 33% of tradespeople are aware that asbestos exposure can cause cancer.
- Only 12% of tradespeople know that asbestos exposure could lead to fatal mesothelioma.
- Nearly 30% wrongly believe most asbestos has been removed from UK buildings.
- Around three quarters (74%) have had no training in how to deal with asbestos.
- Just over 25% thought that some levels of exposure were safe.
On average there are 20 deaths per week from asbestos-related diseases among tradespeople. Mesothelioma develops 15 to 60 years after exposure to asbestos and the UK is facing an epidemic of disease cases, as numbers are expected to peak between 2011 and 2015.
Energy Price Paradox
UK Government thinking was that recent sharp rises in the domestic price of energy, affecting both gas and electricity, would help to promote increased energy efficiency and therefore reduce emissions of CO2. Instead, demand has risen slightly and fuel poverty has increased.
The increase in energy prices is feeding through to an increase in carbon emissions rather than a reduction, as utilities are switching from oil to coal. In January 2008, the Government approved the construction of a new coal-fired power station by E.ON, the first in the UK for a quarter of a century, but it will be built without carbon capture and storage technology.
The paradox is that the Government is trying to drive down the price of electricity to maintain competitiveness, while trying to solve climate change by driving up the price of carbon.
Flood Warnings for Some
In late February 2008, Oxfordshire County Council announced that it would send flood warning alerts to residents via SMS text message. The project forms part of the Council's Emergency Planning procedures and was scheduled to go live in March 2008.
Local authorities have been told by the Environment Agency to make better preparations for natural disasters following the damage done by last year's floods across the UK, when excess rainfall in July caused extensive flooding of the Cherwell and Isis/Thames rivers.
The thinking is that advance warning of a potential flood gives householders the chance to prepare and take the necessary action to minimise damage. It does not seem to have occurred to the Council that those most at risk, such as the elderly, tend not to own mobile phones, and those living in isolated areas often receive a weak radio signal.
The Council said that it has been using SMS since 2003, but has replaced its original systems with Text Message Server from network communications company Avanquest.
Carbon Dioxide Causes Air Pollution Deaths
Carbon dioxide itself has not so far been identified as the cause of a significant number of deaths, but a recent study by Mark Jacobson at Stanford University in California, “On the causal link between carbon dioxide and air pollution mortality”, reference Geophysical Research Letters, DOI: 10.1029/2007GL031101, has suggested that the number of deaths from air pollution associated with elevated levels of carbon dioxide linked to global warming is twice the level previously assumed.
An increase in CO2 raises the ambient temperature and water vapour content of the atmosphere, which in turn accelerates ozone production and traps airborne soot particulates. Increased ozone causes respiratory illnesses and particulates trigger cardiovascular disease.
Jacobson computer-modelled the effect of CO2 levels on air pollution and estimated the impact on population health. He found that for every 1C rise in temperature in the US there are 1,000 additional air-pollution-related deaths. Extrapolating globally, he estimated that CO2-related air pollution is causing 21,600 extra deaths per year on average.
He concludes that with CO2 emissions accelerating, the problem will get worse.
Gas Terminal Fire Boosts Oil Price to a Record
On 28th February 2008, an explosion and fire broke out in a wastewater treatment plant at the giant Bacton gas terminal in Norfolk, which is operated by Shell. Norfolk Fire Service stated that ten crews contained the fire with no reports of casualties, although the fire was described as a major incident. The terminal imports 13% of the UK gas supply via two pipelines, both of which were shut down temporarily. One feeder pipeline resumed flows to the UK network the following day, but no indication was given on when the other might reopen.
Elsewhere, news of the Bacton fire triggered speculative buying of gas and crude oil as market investors gambled on supply shortages. UK spot gas prices rose 17%, and oil prices rose sharply to a new record high above the previous inflation-adjusted record of $102.53 from 1980.
Construction Eurocodes Update
The BSI announced an update on Construction Eurocodes, a set of unified international codes of practice for designing buildings and civil engineering structures which will eventually replace national codes (such as British Standards) in the European Union.
Eurocodes are designed to help the European construction industry become more competitive; improve structural safety; harmonise construction standards in the private sector; enable designers to use more supporting guidance and software; and to be the primary reference for all users, advising them on the latest developments and training events.
There are ten Eurocodes:
- BS EN 1990 Eurocode 0: Basis of structural design.
- BS EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures.
- BS EN 1992 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures.
- BS EN 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures.
- BS EN 1994 Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures.
- BS EN 1995 Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures.
- BS EN 1996 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures.
- BS EN 1997 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design.
- BS EN 1998 Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance.
- BS EN 1999 Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures.
Further details of the publication schedule are available via the BSI website:
Offshore Installations (Safety Case) Regulations 2005
The safety case regulations have been updated by the HSE with new guidance on procedures for consideration of a notification of combined operations, submitted under Regulation 10 of the Offshore Installations (Safety Case) Regulations 2005 (SCR05).
Regulation 10 requires the HSE to:
- Check that the notification meets the requirements of SCR05, particularly those detailed in Regulation 10 and Schedule 4.
- Confirm that the combined operations proposed are within the scope of the accepted safety cases of each installation involved.
- Decide if an inspection of the combined operation activity is required.
The Inspection Management Team Inspector must involve Topic Specialist Inspectors by exception when the IMT Inspector identifies significant health and safety concerns; novel risk reduction measures; unusual operations; or operations that may lead to increased risks.
More information can be found at:
http://www.hse.gov.uk/offshore/scham/combinedops.htm.
Only Two EU Countries Meet CO2 Emissions Deadline
28th February 2008 was the deadline for all EU member states to allocate EU Allowances (EUAs) to more than 10,000 European energy-intensive installations in 2008, the first year of the second trading cycle of the EU emissions trading scheme from 2008-12.
In a statement issued on 29th February, the EU Executive Commission said that only Austria and Denmark had met the deadline to allocate industrial permits to emit carbon dioxide. This will delay a 2008 carbon spot market.
The EU’s carbon trading scheme is its key strategy to fight climate change, and sets an overall cap on permits issued to industry to emit CO2, although it allows companies to trade EUAs among themselves. Each member state has an EUA quota, but most affected companies would not have received them by the official deadline and will not have enough permits to match their 2008 emissions until early next year.
Thirteen countries submitted the necessary information to the Commission regarding allocation. Five received Commission approval to issue, but only two had issued EUAs. Of the other three countries, Britain and the Czech Republic said they would not allocate EUAs, while the status of Finland was unknown.
The UK said that it would not issue EUAs until the European Commission announced when its emissions trading scheme would link with a separate carbon trading scheme under the Kyoto Protocol on global warming, which the Commission has previously said may not happen before 2009.
A spot market for immediate physical EUA delivery already exists, especially in eastern Europe according to market participants, and that market is now effectively frozen.
Safety and Health in Hotels and Catering
The European Agency for Safety and Health at Work has a webpage devoted to occupational health and safety resources covering the hotel, restaurant and catering sector at:
http://osha.europa.eu/sector/horeca/.
Around eight million people are employed in this sector in Europe, which generates an annual turnover in excess of €400 million. It includes restaurants and bars, camping sites, youth hostels and canteens. Most are small businesses employing less than ten people, with women making up a little over half of the workforce. Employment tends to be temporary, with irregular hours, low pay and few career prospects. There is a high proportion of young people working in the sector.
The Agency describe the negative characteristics of the sector as:
- Heavy workloads.
- Prolonged standing and static postures.
- Contact with (sometimes difficult) customers.
- High levels of evening and weekend working, which disrupt an employee's work-life balance.
- High levels of stress.
- Monotonous work.
- Harassment and even violence from customers, colleagues and employers.
- Discrimination against women and people from other countries.
Diesel Fumes Affect the Brain
A Dutch research paper published in March 2008 in the online journal Particle and Fibre Toxicology by Bjoern Cruts et al suggests that even a short exposure to diesel fumes can affect the human brain. The study found that a one-hour exposure to inhaling diesel engine exhaust induces a stress response in brain activity. Previous studies have shown that when very small soot particles (nanoparticles) of polluted air are inhaled they can penetrate to the brain. The present research demonstrates that inhalation actually alters brain activity.
The team subjected ten volunteers to a one-hour exposure in a room filled with either clean air or exhaust from a diesel engine. The subjects were wired up to an electroencephalograph (EEG), a machine that records the electrical signals of the brain, and their brain waves were monitored during the exposure period and for one hour after they left the room. The researchers found that after 30 minutes the diesel exhaust began to affect brain activity. The EEG data suggested that the brain displayed a stress response, indicative of changed information processing in the brain cortex, which continued to increase even after the subjects had left the exposure chamber.
The concentration of diesel exhaust that the subjects breathed was set to the highest level that people might encounter on a busy road or in a garage.
Oxidative stress is one consequence of particles being deposited in tissue and has also been implicated in degenerative brain diseases such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease. It is possible that the long-term effects of exposure to traffic nanoparticles may interfere with normal brain function and information processing.
The reference is Bjoern Cruts, et al, 2008, “Exposure to diesel exhaust induces changes in EEG in human volunteers”, Particle and Fibre Toxicology, accessible online at:
http://www.particleandfibretoxicology.com/.
Radiation Exposure and Heart Disease Risk
A review study on the health of 65,000 UK nuclear industry workers was carried out by Dave McGeoghegan and colleagues and published in March 2008 in the International Journal of Epidemiology, reference DOI: 10.1093/ije/dyn018. The paper is entitled “The non-cancer mortality experience of male workers at British Nuclear Fuels plc, 1946–2005”.
The study revealed an increased risk of circulatory disease in those who were employed in high-exposure jobs at a time when the exposure limits were less strict than now. The probability of such workers reaching the age of 70 was 2% less than for those exposed to lower radiation doses. The increased risk of circulatory disease was higher than that for cancer.
Excess mortality from circulatory problems has also been recorded in nuclear bomb survivors and in cancer patients who received radiotherapy.
Cooking the CO2 Emissions Books
A report by the National Audit Office (NAO) published on 15th March 2008 deals with an investigation into the way in which the UK Government maintains two sets of accounts to measure changes in greenhouse gas emissions. The NAO found that UK carbon dioxide emissions are 12% higher than the figure claimed by the Government. In 2005, the Government stated that UK emissions were equivalent to 656 million tonnes of CO2, whereas the real figure was 733 million tonnes. This contradicts the central government claim that British CO2 emissions have fallen by 6.4% since 1990.
The discrepancy arises from the deliberate exclusion from the figures of aviation emissions, shipping emissions, and emissions caused by British company operations outside the UK.
The NAO found that government departments interpret data in different contexts and for different purposes. The UK has a Kyoto target of 12.5% reduction in all greenhouse gases by 2012, an EU target of reducing 20-30% of CO2, and three domestic targets ranging between 20-60% of CO2. The targets can be assessed against different bases, with considerable scope for aggregating and presenting data in different ways.
Because of their failure to meet greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets, the Government will have to buy carbon credits from overseas at a likely cost of £5 billion.
Cathodic Protection of Offshore Pipelines
The Petroleum Safety Authority Norway has published a report on a review study by The Welding Institute (TWI) dealing with the technology status, experiences and challenges associated with old and new solutions for cathodic protection of subsea pipelines. The report provides an overview of relevant standards for the design of cathodic protection for subsea pipelines, pointing out challenges and variations in key design parameters in the various standards that might affect the robustness of the different cathodic protection solutions.
Until recently, standards and codes for design of cathodic protection have been considered conservative. This conservatism has been reduced in the latest and most recently revised standards, e.g. in the form of lower disintegration values for polymer coatings.
To maintain the same level of safety, the coating must be of a high quality and also, particularly on field joints, be applied in accordance with qualified procedures and routines so that no damage occurs during installation or operation.
New Guidance on Shipyard Ergonomics
The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has published online a new guidance document that could help employers and their employees in the shipyard industry prevent musculoskeletal injuries. It provides practical recommendations for employers to reduce the number and severity of workplace injuries in their facilities, and also helps employers to identify, evaluate and control hazards by using the best practices found to be successful in shipyards.
The document can be downloaded in PDF format from:
http://www.osha.gov/dsg/guidance/shipyard-guidelines.html.
Shell Fined over COMAH Incident
In March 2008, Shell UK Oil Products pleaded guilty at Chester Crown Court to failing to comply with the duty imposed by Regulation 4 of the Control of Major Accident Hazards Regulations 1999 (as amended), in that the company failed to contain the release of a flammable toxic gas. The company was fined £266,681 and ordered to pay costs of £37,131.62.
The incident happened on 29th May 2003, when 20 tonnes of isobutane (LPG), mixed with 150 kg of hydrogen fluoride, escaped into the atmosphere through a corroded pipe in the HF Alkylation plant at the Shell Stanlow Manufacturing Complex, Ellesmere Port, Cheshire. A gas vapour cloud formed above the site, but there was no ignition and the gas dispersed without exploding. The incident could potentially have resulted in multiple fatalities and damage to buildings over a significant area, with secondary explosions creating a major fire and catastrophic damage.
Following an investigation the HSE concluded that Shell had lost control of corrosion processes within the pipe to such an extent that a failure became inevitable.
Because of the quantities released, the incident was reported to the European Commission as required by the COMAH Regulations.
Government Review on Work and Health
In late March 2008, Dame Carol Black, the National Director for Health and Work, published a review that urges comprehensive reform of the UK approach to health and work.
The review found that at present there is insufficient access to good work-related health support, with provision concentrated among a few large employers, leaving most small employers without support. Key recommendations include: a new Fit for Work service, to be piloted for patients in the early stages of sickness; the replacement of sick notes with electronic 'fit notes' stating what people can do, not what they can't; and bringing occupational health into the mainstream of healthcare provision.
The basis of the review is the fact that if people were kept healthy at work it would not cost the country £100 billion a year, the current bill for ill-health and equivalent to the cost of running the entire NHS.
The document, called Working for a Healthier Tomorrow, is available online at:
http://www.workingforhealth.gov.uk/documents/working-for-a-healthier-tomorrow-tagged.pdf.
Thames Barrier Under Stress
In the 1970s, the design intention of the Thames Barrier was to protect London from flooding over a 100-year span. At that time average global sea-level rise was 1.8 millimetres per year, and rapid global climate change was considered to be crank science. However, over the past 15 years the rate of sea-level rise has nearly doubled to around 3.1mm per year, and the consensus opinion is that the rate of increase will accelerate.
When the Barrier first became operational in 1982, it was forecast to be closed around five times a year, but the rate of use has gradually increased since. It is now forecast to be closed up to 30 times a year by 2030, due to sea levels rising much faster than predicted. The Environment Agency expect the Barrier to meet its specification of coping with an 8 mm per year rate of sea-level increase and protect London from a one-in-a-thousand-years North Sea storm surge by 2030.
However, a review has been initiated into storm surge protection plans. The Thames Estuary 2100 project considers that past assessments on sea-level rise this century are too optimistic and worse-case scenarios exist, such as a 4-metre rise in sea level by 2100, which will mean that a bigger and more expensive barrage will have to be built and raised permanently. The current prediction of a maximum 59 cm rise by 2100 made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change is likely to prove a significant underestimate.
At present the Thames Barrier protects buildings and capital infrastructure in London valued at around £80 billion, with 1.25 million people living or working in the risk area.
Draft British Standard on Energy Management Systems
At the end of March 2008, the BSI published a draft copy of BS EN 16001 Energy Management Systems - Requirements. The aim of the proposed standard, which has a similar structure to ISO 14001, is to assist organisations to establish the systems and processes necessary to improve energy efficiency, leading to reductions in cost and greenhouse gas emissions through systematic management of energy.
It specifies requirements for an energy management system for developing and implementing a policy and objectives which take into account legal requirements and information about significant energy aspects. It will apply to all types and sizes of organisations, and applies only to activities under the control of an organisation.
The document can be read at:
http://www.bsigroup.com/upload/Standards & Publications/Environment/BSEN16001dpc.pdf.
This is not the final version of the standard. The consultation period for comments on the draft expires on 31st May 2008.
Biofuels in the Spotlight
Effective from 15th April 2008, EU legislation requires that vehicle fuel suppliers must ensure that biofuels account for at least 2.5% of their fuel products available to consumers, rising to 10% by 2020.
A UK Government report is expected in June 2008 from the Renewable Fuels Agency. After consideration of its recommendations the Government may decide on a change of policy.
The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs has questioned the logic of switching to biofuels. Published studies have shown that more carbon is emitted in producing some biofuels than is saved by burning them in place of fossil fuels. Biofuels are described as carbon-neutral because they absorb carbon dioxide as they grow; but crops require fuel to grow them. Crops such as maize require most energy, while sugar cane requires far less.
A significant proportion of crops intended for human food have been diverted as biofuel feedstocks, creating food shortages. In other countries, biofuel crops have displaced food crops and tropical rainforests.
Tidal Power Record
Harland and Wolff, the long-established Belfast shipyard that built the ill-fated liner “Titanic”, has diversified into renewable energy generation and has assembled what Northern Irish authorities claim to be the world's largest tidal electricity generation system. The 1.2 megawatt SeaGen system, designed by British company Marine Current Turbines, will also be the first to be connected to a local electricity grid. It will generate electricity for 1,000 homes by using tides in Strangford Lough, which lies to the east of Belfast.
An 80-metre-long Norwegian crane barge was employed to transport SeaGen from the Harland and Wolff yard to Strangford Lough, where the energy converter is expected to start commercial operation by early summer.
Waves and changing tides can produce more energy per hectare than wind, although the easier logistics of wind power technology make it the more widely used renewable source. Tidal waters move continually, whereas wind gusts only keep turbines producing power at around 30% of their maximum capacity.
EU Workplace Accident Statistics
Eurostat (the statistical office of the European Commission) and member states are currently working on a programme to give consistency to workplace injury statistics in the EU. Based on common definitions, Eurostat published in late March 2008 standardised statistics for fatal injuries, and injuries leading to more than three days’ absence. The most recent statistics are for 2005. According to figures from the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, the work-related accident rate in the EU is one every five seconds, and the mortality rate one worker every two hours.
In 2005, there were 4,011 work-related fatalities in the EU, including road traffic and transport accidents occurring during work.
There were 3,628 work-related deaths in the nine branches of industry that are covered by injury notification in all member states, comprising 1,054 in construction, 726 in manufacturing, 637 in transport, 514 in agriculture, 320 in the retail and wholesale trade, 276 in the two branches of financial and business services, 62 in hotels and restaurants and 39 in utilities. Road transport accidents accounted for 1, 402 fatal injuries.
In 2005, the EU average rate of work-related fatal injury excluding transport was 2.3 per 100,000 workers. The UK rate is 1.4 and is the lowest among EU member states.
The EU average rate of fatal injury has decreased by 15% since 2001. Over the same period the UK fatal rate has fallen by 7%. On average, UK rates of fatal injury in the main industrial sectors are substantially lower than the EU average. The British rate of (non-fatal) over-three-day injury is lower than other member states with the exception of Sweden and Ireland.
Can Global Emissions Reductions be Achieved?
Current attempts to mitigate the effects of global climate change are based on the evolutionary but unprecedented expansion of tested strategies, including renewable energy sources and nuclear power, CO2 capture and storage, methane emissions reduction, and forest protection.
The scenarios published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assume that very substantial technological advances, leading to greater energy efficiency and reduced carbon dioxide intensity, will happen spontaneously and without additional policy measures.
This assumption was questioned in an article by Roger Pielke, Tom Wigley and Christopher Green published online by the journal Nature, reference Nature 452, 508-509 (2008) | doi:10.1038/452508a. The writers consider it to be a gross underestimate of the challenges involved in reducing and stabilising greenhouse-gas emissions. They argue that to meet future energy needs, the evolutionary development of improved energy technologies must happen at four times the rate suggested by the IPCC.
The IPCC assumptions reflect the reasoning that high economic growth normally goes hand in hand with high rates of technological change. However, actual economic growth and energy use may develop in different ways than assumed in the scenarios.
The IPCC scenarios developed in 2000 do not match historical observations, as they did not foresee the extraordinary growth in the Chinese and Indian economies. There has also been less technological change in the past decade than was assumed, creating a bias in the extrapolated cost of emission reductions.
Merger of the HSE and HSC
On 1st April 2008, the Health and Safety Commission (HSC) and the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) were merged under the Legislative and Regulatory Reform Act 2006 to form a unitary national regulatory body responsible for promoting health and safety at work in the UK. The combined body is called the Health and Safety Executive. The new HSE will relocate its headquarters from London to Merseyside over a two-year period.
An Authorisation instrument has been drawn up under Section 10 of and Schedule 2 to the Health and Safety at Work, etc. Act 1974, and an organisation chart has been made available at:
http://www.hse.gov.uk/aboutus/hse/organisationchart.pdf.
The intention is to strengthen the links between strategy and delivery. No change in day-to-day operations is anticipated.
Hydrogen Power for Road Vehicles
In early April 2008, two UK companies, ITM Power and Roush Technologies, announced a joint project to put hydrogen-powered vehicles on the roads within a year. Burning hydrogen releases water vapour to the atmosphere rather than carbon dioxide.
Roush will adapt existing commercial vehicle engines to run on hydrogen, while ITM will provide vehicle users with the means of generating their own hydrogen supplies to fuel the vehicles by means of its patented electrolyser, which splits water into hydrogen and oxygen. The electrolyser refuelling station can be powered by off-peak or renewable energy.
The ITM development of the refuelling station removes the necessity for the infrastructure of a piped hydrogen distribution network or special hydrogen filling stations.
UN Action on Air Pollution by Shipping
At a meeting held in London in early April 2008, the member countries of the UN International Maritime Organisation (IMO) considered how best to reduce harmful shipping pollutants, such as PM10s, sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide. The IMO agreed provisionally to critical limits on the sulphur content in ship fuels, although negotiations on CO2 emissions were still continuing.
The sulphur limit has repercussions for the oil refining industry as it will affect the availability and price of diesel for road transport. Cleaner distillate fuels would increasingly make up a substantial part of the fuel mix in the future.
The proposed revision of the marine pollution laws known as MARPOL Annex VI is:
- By 2010, all Sulphur Emission Control Areas (SECAs), of which there are at present only two, the Baltic and the North Sea, will have a ship fuel sulphur limit of 1% compared to the current 1.5%.
- By 2012, the global sulphur limit will be reduced to 3.5% on ship fuels from the current 4.5%.
- By 2015, all SECA limits will be reduced to 0.1% from 1.5%. By then Japan, Australia and other regions are likely to have full SECAs alongside the EU and America.
- By 2020, the global limit will be reduced to 0.5% applied to ship fuels across the world, with an absolute deadline for compliance in 2025.
The IMO move will prove expensive for the shipping industry, as fuels represent up to 50% of operating costs and the price of bunker fuels will increase considerably.
Melting Ice Caps and Volcanic Eruptions
A research paper published in April 2008 by C. Pagli and F. Sigmundsson, “Will present day glacier retreat increase volcanic activity? Stress induced by recent glacier retreat and its effect on magmatism at the Vatnajökull ice cap, Iceland”, Geophysical Research Letters, doi:10.1029/2008GL033510, discusses the influence of melting ice caps on volcanic activity in Iceland.
The writers argue that global warming is melting the largest ice cap in Iceland, which is disappearing at a rate of five cubic kilometres per year. As the ice melts, it relieves the pressure exerted on the volcanic rock buried deep under the ice sheet and thus increases the rate at which the solid rock melts into magma.
There are several active volcanoes in Iceland buried under ice. The last major eruption was in 1996 at Gjàlp, and before then in 1938. The results of field research suggest that the extra magma produced as the ice cap melts could supply enough magma for similar eruptions to take place at a significantly shorter average time interval. Over the past century the production of magma has increased by 10%, and an additional 1.4 km3 of magma has been formed under the Vatnajökull ice cap.
The situation in Iceland provides a model of wider application. Thinning ice cover causes change in the weight bearing down on the crust of the Earth and thus induces change in the geological stresses in the crust, increasing the likelihood of volcanic eruptions. Similar places likely to be at increased risk of eruption due to ice-melt include Mount Erebus in Antarctica, the Aleutian Islands and other Alaskan volcanoes.
Other researchers have pointed out that increasing the loading on the crust may trigger volcanic activity as well, and the melting of ice sheets is raising sea levels. Thus there is the possibility of a widespread increase in volcanic activity as an effect of global warming.
Pesticide Use and Parkinson's Disease
A paper published in the journal BMC Neurology suggests there is strong evidence that exposure to pesticides significantly increases the risk of Parkinson's disease. The study by Dana B. Hancock et al, “Pesticide exposure and risk of Parkinson's disease: a family-based case-control study”, BMC Neurology 2008, 8:6doi:10.1186/1471-2377-8-6, was based on 319 cases of the neurological disease and 296 of their relatives without the disease as controls. The cases all had associations with direct pesticide application, well-water consumption, and farming residence or occupation. Allowances were made while controlling for age-at-examination, gender, cigarette smoking, and caffeine consumption.
The study found that sufferers from Parkinson's disease (PD) were more than twice as likely to report heavy exposure to pesticides over their lifetime as family members without the disease. Consuming well-water and living or working on a farm were not associated with PD.
When classifying pesticides by type, exposure to both insecticides and herbicides was found to significantly increase the risk of PD. Two specific types of insecticide, organochlorine and organophosphate compounds, were significantly associated with PD. The data confirm a positive association of exposure to two specific pesticide classes with the incidence of Parkinson's disease.
Windfall Profits for Power Companies
In a report published on 7th April 2008, the environment organisation WWF criticised the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) as being flawed and subject to abuse by power companies. Under the current ETS, energy-intensive industries are allowed to release a fixed level of CO2 emissions. Those companies that exceed their limit have to buy surplus allowances at auction, the aim being to create an incentive for businesses to reduce their emissions. This has not happened in practice.
European national governments are allowed to auction up to 10% of their allocated pollution emissions permits, which represent caps on member states’ emissions; but the WWF estimate that the proportion actually sold is closer to 4%. The remainder is handed out free to power utilities in excess of their requirements, providing them with windfall profits of around €71 billion (£56 billion). The major beneficiaries of the free permits are German power generators, who make €14 billion to €34 billion, despite their 70% dependence on coal. The power utilities have also been passing on the cost of emissions permits directly to their customers in the form of ever-increasing energy bills.
The EU plans to abandon the issue of free permits to the power sector after 2012.
Nuclear Sites Feeding Frenzy
On 14th April 2008, the UK Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA) said it had received proposals from over 30 parties interested in land surrounding 18 existing nuclear sites, the only potential locations for new power stations. The identity of the bidders was not announced, but they are known to include RWE and E.ON of Germany and the French nuclear operator EDF. It is likely that Centrica and Scottish and Southern Energy are also involved. The sites are greenfield land next to current nuclear locations, most of which are currently being decommissioned.
The government auction is taking place at the same time as the £11 billion bidding war for the nuclear operator, British Energy, which has eight active sites considered to be more valuable than the NDA assets.
It was also reported that a consortium consisting of EnergySolutions of the USA and Toshiba-Westinghouse of Japan is planning to build a new nuclear reactor at Wylfa on Anglesey, working independently from British Energy. The existing Wylfa nuclear reactor is due to be decommissioned in 2010 and lies on land owned by the NDA.
Pneumonia Mortality Linked to Exhaust Pollution
Research published in the Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health by Professor George Knox and colleagues at the University of Birmingham finds that the incidence of pneumonia in England is closely linked to engine exhaust fume levels, and deaths from pneumonia across the country are heavily linked to carbon emissions. The paper suggests that the annual number of excess deaths that could be attributed to traffic pollution is now close to those experienced in the 1952 London smog, when 4,000 people were killed.
The team examined death rates from the disease and pollution levels in 352 local authorities between 1996 and 2004, and engine exhaust emissions were one of the pollutant levels analysed. The figures were then crosschecked with a range of pollutant levels. There were significant regional variations, with Lewisham in London having the highest number of deaths per capita and Berwick-on-Tweed the lowest.
The paper states that there were almost 400,000 deaths from pneumonia in the eight years of the study period, with a strong and independent relationship with emissions associated with oil combustion. In the 35 local authorities with the highest disease-specific death rates, there were 53,821 pneumonia deaths. This was an excess of 14,718 more pneumonia deaths than the expected national rate. In the same local authority areas there were also higher rates of some cancers, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and rheumatic heart disease.
Road transport was described as the chief source of the emissions, although it was not possible to discriminate between the effects of different chemical components in vehicle exhaust. The paper claims that many deaths attributed to pneumonia were probably caused by direct chemical injury, as in the 1952 London smog, and are better regarded as acute respiratory distress syndrome or acute lung injury.
New Con Doc on CHIP Regulations Amendment
The HSE has published consultative document CD217 dealing with proposals for new amending regulations (CHIP 3.2) to the Chemicals (Hazard Information and Packaging for Supply) Regulations 2002 (CHIP). The amendments are necessary to implement under UK law EC Directive 2006/8/EC, commonly known as the 2nd Adaptation to Technical Progress of the Dangerous Preparations Directive (the 2nd ATP).
The 2nd ATP makes changes to three of the annexes in the ,b>Dangerous Preparations Directive (DPD) which affect the rules and procedures for classifying and labelling a chemical preparation containing carcinogens, mutagens or substances toxic for reproduction; the generic concentration limits to be used for the evaluation of the hazards for the aquatic environment; and the classification and labelling requirements for preparations containing ozone-depleting substances.
There may also be a requirement for suppliers to take account of any large quantities of newly reclassified chemicals stored on site at any one time to ensure that they comply with the Control of Major Accident Hazards Regulations 1999 (as amended).
The proposed amendments also clarify and make more consistent the specified warning phrases on labels for certain preparations.
The consultation period ends on 8th July 2008.
New Smokestack Retrofit Material for Emissions Capture
Researchers from the School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology, and the US Department of Energy National Energy Technology Laboratory in Pennsylvania, have published a report on the development of a new, low-cost material for capturing carbon dioxide from the smokestacks of coal-fired electric power plants and other industrial sources that generate greenhouse gases.
The problem with existing carbon capture technology is that it is unsuitable for wide use. Absorbent liquids are energy-intensive and expensive, while solid adsorbents suffer from low absorption capacities and lack stability after extended use.
The research describes development of a new solid adsorbent called a hyperbranched aminosilica (HAS) that captures up to seven times more carbon dioxide than conventional solid materials, including some of the best carbon dioxide adsorbents currently available. The material shows greater stability under different temperature extremes, allowing it to be recycled many times. Combined with improved heat management techniques, the new material could provide a cost-effective way to capture large quantities of CO2 from coal-burning facilities.
The HAS material has the combination of high capacity, easy synthesis, low cost, and a robust ability to be recycled, all of which are key criteria for an adsorbent that could be scaled up for use on an industrial commercial scale. Once removed from flue stream gases, the CO2 might be sequestered underground, as and when the sequestration process can be proven viable. Production of the material requires only the mixing of a silica substrate with the precursor of an amine polymer in solution. The amine polymer is initiated on the silica surface, producing a solid material that can be filtered out and dried.
The reference is Jason C. Hicks, et al, 2008, “Designing Adsorbents for CO2 Capture from Flue Gas-Hyperbranched Aminosilicas Capable of Capturing CO2 Reversibly”, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 130 (10), 2902 -2903, 2008; 10.1021/ja077795v.
UN Climate Change Panel Announces Further Reports
The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) announced on 16th April 2008 that its fifth report will be published by 2014. The report from the first working group will be circulated in 2013, so that its findings can be incorporated more fully into the reports from the second and third working groups.
At its planning meeting in Budapest, the IPCC also released a smaller report on the effects of climate change on water supplies worldwide. The agency also plans to produce a special report on renewable energy, which is expected to be released in 2010.
Giant Onshore Wind Farm Rejected
On 21st April 2008, a planning application for what would have been one of the largest onshore wind farms in Europe was refused by the Scottish Government. The proposed site lies in the Lewis Peatlands Special Protection Area on the Western Isles and is designated under the European Commission (EC) Birds Directive as well as the EC Habitats Directive.
The company Lewis Wind Power (a joint venture between British Energy and Amec) had applied to the Scottish Executive under Section 36 of the Electricity Act 1989 to construct a wind farm at Barvas Moor on the Isle of Lewis with an installed capacity of 651.6 MW, comprising 181 wind turbines and associated infrastructure. The Government decided that the proposal did not comply with European law protecting sensitive environments. The scheme had attracted the backing of the local authority and of a fabrication yard at Arnish near Stornoway, which expected to benefit from construction work if the scheme went ahead; but there were also nearly 11,000 objections.
Scottish ministers said that the decision does not mean that there cannot be onshore wind farms in the Western Isles.
In a separate development the oil company Shell, one of three shareholders in the proposed London Array scheme at Cleve in the Thames Estuary, announced that it wanted to withdraw from that project. The other companies in the consortium are E.ON of Germany and DONG Energy of Denmark. The London Array is intended to be the world's largest wind farm, generating 1,000 megawatts. The estimated cost of the project has escalated from £1 billion in 2003 to around £2 billion, mainly due to increases in the cost of turbine components and production capacity restrictions in their supply.
Palm Oil Protests against Unilever
In April 2008, the Anglo-Dutch corporation Unilever became the target for environmental pressure groups in England and the Netherlands over the source of the 800,000 tonnes of palm oil that it processes annually into food products, such as margarine, and another 500,000 tonnes used in soap and cosmetics.
Protesters claim that the peatland forests of Indonesia, one of the last remaining habitats of the orang-utan, are being damaged to create palm oil plantations. They called on the company to end the expansion of palm oil into forest and peatland areas and stop trading with suppliers who continue to destroy rainforests. Alternative sources of palm oil are available that do not cause rainforest destruction.
Unilever is a member of the multinational Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) and is the world’s largest purchaser of palm oil at around 1.3 million tonnes per year.
Unilever said of its palm oil operations that the company is looking to determine what actions need to be taken, if any, and will look at the supply chain.
Factsheets on Health and Safety Management
The European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (EU OSHA) has made available online a series of information factsheets in the form of PDF documents dealing with occupational health and safety management issues. Among those of general interest are:
- Factsheet 80 Risk assessment - roles and responsibilities, which covers understanding of the legal context, concepts, the process of assessing the risks and the role to be played by the main actors involved in the process of risk assessment.
- Factsheet 81 Risk assessment - the key to healthy workplaces, which in essence applies the five-step approach to risk assessment developed by the UK Health and Safety Executive.
These and other Factsheets are available at:
http://osha.europa.eu/publications/index_overview.
Clean Development Mechanism under Stress
In late April 2008, the UN administrators of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) scheme announced that after a crackdown nearly a third of all projects reviewed were either rejected or sent for further review. There had been criticism that the scheme is becoming discredited by incompetence and fraud, with many projects put forward being bogus and not contributing to emissions reduction. Recent rejected projects include a wind farm in India and factories in India, Brazil and Malaysia designed to operate on biowaste.
The CDM scheme is one of the central market-based mechanisms to emerge from the Kyoto Protocol, and allows polluting industries in developed countries to buy credits to emit carbon through the CDM, with the proceeds being used to fund environmentally sound projects in developing nations. Unfortunately the scheme has a bias against small projects where the funding could have its greatest effect, because the cost of the administration approval process for a small project is the same as for a large one.
In 2008, it is likely that the global carbon market will trade around 4.2 billion tonnes of carbon emissions, worth around US $92 billion, but the problems with the CDM are disrupting the European and American carbon markets. If the scheme collapses, the polluters will have to reduce their emissions to comply with environmental laws, leading to significant rises in the price of goods and services.
How Did PFOA Contaminate the World?
The artificial chemical agent, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA, a perfluoroalkyl carboxylate), is classed as a likely human carcinogen and animal studies indicate that perfluorinated chemicals affect the liver, neonatal development, the immune system and hormone levels. Until recently the substance was widely used in the processing of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), in the manufacture of water or stain repellent coatings, in food packaging resistant to grease, in polishes and paper coatings. Manufacturers in the USA have begun voluntary efforts to eliminate its use. As a pollutant, PFOA has become ubiquitous on a global scale, even contaminating the flesh of polar bears.
The recently published results of laboratory-based studies, funded by Teflon manufacturer DuPont, have shown that PFOA can move into the atmosphere more readily than previously thought (journal reference Environmental Science and Technology, DOI: 10.1021/es7032026). It is now argued that ocean aerosols can concentrate PFOA and lift it into the air.
It had been assumed that the widespread distribution of the substance took place after it entered bodies of water, where it remained because the predominant form of PFOA in water is an ion, PFO–, which is a potent surfactant with negligible vapour pressure. It was thought that bioaccumulation in the food chain took place through water.
Research by David Ellis and colleagues at Trent University, Canada, has found that aerosols can concentrate PFO– on the surfaces of bubbles, which lift the aerosols into the air. Once airborne, some of the PFO– converts to PFOA, which then moves into the atmosphere. In this form the agent should stay airborne long enough to travel great distances.
In the marine environment, wind and waves kick up sea spray, a natural marine aerosol, and as a surfactant, PFO– should concentrate on the surface of the water particles, from where PFOA should release into the atmosphere. Aerosolisation from sea spray and transportation in the gas phase may therefore account for the global distribution of PFOA and other perfluorocarbons.
UK Air Quality Standards Sacrificed
There has been a series of EU Air Quality Directives, among which the National Emissions Ceiling Directive (2001/81/EC), abbreviated to NECD, was designed to combat acidification, eutrophication and ground-level ozone. The NECD sets legally binding limits for each member state on emissions of ammonia, oxides of nitrogen, sulphur dioxide and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) which must be met by 2010, in line with World Health Organisation standards. This Directive was translated into UK law as the National Emission Ceilings Regulations 2002.
The EU Air Quality Directive was modified in December 2007 when the European Parliament adopted the second-reading legislative report that provides for maximum concentration levels for the atmospheric microparticles or dust most hazardous to human health in the PM2.5 range, which were not then regulated. PM2.5 and other gases in ambient air are suspected as the cause of the growth in respiratory illnesses such as asthma, bronchitis and emphysema, and accordingly should be reduced in order to minimise harmful effects on human health. All EU states are obliged to monitor and measure levels of dust particulates and introduce limits for air quality. Member states have two years after the entry into force of the Directive in May 2008 to transpose this into national law.
In late April 2008, it was confirmed by DEFRA that the UK Government would seek a five-year exemption to delay compliance with the European air quality rules for NO2 emissions, and a one-year exemption for particulates smaller than 10 microns.
The reason for non-compliance on air quality standards is to enable the expansion of flights into Heathrow airport by 60,000 flights per year. Proposals for a third runway at Heathrow would generate even more emissions.
People living in the Greater London area will thus have to endure declining air quality for another seven years before any action is taken.
EU Physical Agents Directive
The EU Physical Agents (Electromagnetic Fields) Directive (2004/40/EC) came into force on 30th April 2004 and member states had until 30th April 2008 to implement it into national legislation. It was subsequently amended by a new Directive (2008/46/EC), which changed the implementation date to 30th April 2012.
The delay followed concern that some medical procedures, which include interventional MRI scanning, would expose workers such as radiologists to levels above the exposure limit values in the 2004 Directive. The European Commission is carrying out a full impact assessment of the Directive and considering new scientific advice before proposing further amendments to address the impact of the original Directive. It is likely that the findings will be available by early 2009.
The amending Directive can be downloaded as a PDF document from:
Problems of Scale in Improving Air Quality
A study on the effects of the London Congestion Charge on air quality by Frank Kelly and colleagues at King's College, London was presented at the 2008 Health Effects Institute annual conference held in Philadelphia in April. He found that levels of pollution in the congestion charging zone changed little before and after the scheme was implemented, and some pollutants even increased. However, he suggested that enlarging the controlled area to the rest of London should cut back on smog and have a small but significant impact on air quality.
Congestion charging was introduced in 2003 and by 2006 the number of cars entering the zone had fallen by 20%, but the number of exempted public transport buses had increased by 25%. Over the period there was little change in measured quantities of smog, diesel soot and carbon monoxide, and levels of nitrogen oxides increased slightly.
The scheme was intended to reduce traffic rather than address air quality issues. These are now being tackled by the London Low Emission Zone scheme introduced in February 2008, which is being phased in over two years.
Unregulated Risks of Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is concerned with the manipulation of natural and synthetic materials at the atomic and molecular scale (100 nanometres or less). In 2004, the UK Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering published a report entitled Nanoscience and Nanotechnologies: Opportunities and Uncertainties, in which it was argued that there is virtually no information available about the effect of nano-particles on living species other than humans or about how they behave in the atmosphere, water or soil, or about their ability to accumulate in food chains. The conclusion was that the release of nano-particles should be restricted due to their unknown potential effects on the environment and human health.
Although a large number of workers are currently employed in the manufacture and handling of nano-particle products, there are no specific safety regimes in place, nor are there methods for determining potential exposure levels to nano-particles in the workplace. A report on nanotechnology in food and agriculture was published in April 2008 by the environmental organisation Friends of the Earth at FOE Nanotechnology (559 KB). It highlights the increasingly widespread use of nanotechnology in food processing, finding that at least 104 food, food packaging and agricultural products containing nano-ingredients are now on sale internationally, including diet replacement milkshakes, cooking oil, tea and fortified fruit juice; food additives sold for use in processed meats, soft drinks, bakery and dairy products; long-life and antibacterial food packaging; and antibacterial kitchenware. The report claims there is evidence that many nano-ingredients used in such products, such as nano silver, nano titanium dioxide, nano zinc and zinc oxide, pose toxic risks to humans at the cellular level and to the environment, and calls for a halt to the sale of nano-foods until they can be shown to be safe and are adequately controlled.
In Australia (where the report was published) there is no mandatory requirement for food companies to conduct safety tests on nano-ingredients before putting them in foods, provided those ingredients have been used previously in larger form. FOE claims this means that most nano-ingredients are effectively unregulated. There is no law requiring nano-ingredients to be labelled, and food processors have chosen not to do so. FOE states that packaging for Cadbury chocolates, antibacterial kitchen wipes and cleaning sprays, and refrigerators sold in Australia by Samsung, Hitachi and LG Electronics now contain manufactured nano-materials. The nano-food additives and ingredients reviewed in the report are also found in foods in Europe and the USA.
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